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Alcohol, or Ethyl Alcohol, is an intoxicating ingredient found in alcoholic beverages. Alcoholic beverages can be categorised into three generic classes: beers, wines and spirits. Ethanol is a psychoactive drug that is found to have a depressant effect on all human beings.

Everyday millions of people around the world suffer from negative after-effects of drinking alcohol without even knowing that they already have become a victim of alcohol abuse. An innocent social habit gradually crosses over a physiological and psychological addiction to turn people into a heavy drinker. Over the time excessive consumption of alcohol will take its toll on the human body.

The Chemistry

Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is produced by fermentation, a process that involves metabolism of carbohydrates by certain species of yeast in absence of oxygen.

How Much is OK?

Alcohol by volume or ABV defines the concentration of alcohol in a drink, in percentage by weight, abbreviated as w/w (weight/weight) or in proof. The proof measurement is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees of Fahrenheit (i.e. 80 proof = 40% ABV).

Governments of some countries have defined limit on consumption of alcohol based on their geography, weather patterns and public health statistics. Basic recommendation of having alcohol defined by the Govt. of Australia is as follows:

* Men should not exceed 4 units or 40g of absolute alcohol per day on regular basis or 28 units per week
* Women should not exceed 2 units or 20g of absolute alcohol per day on regular basis or 14 units per week

In simpler version, one unit refers to 10g of pure alcohol in Australian standard whereas 8g or roughly 10ML of pure alcohol is equivalent to one unit in the UK. Current UK guidelines recommend men not to exceed 3 or 4 units per day.

Biologically, women body composition has less water than men. Even if the women and men have same size and same weight, the women tend to get drunk faster than men, which is why the recommended limit of consumption of alcohol is lower for women regardless of geographical location or country.

Alcohol Dependence

People, who drink very frequently, start to be dependent on alcohol and become addictive to the alcohol. Listed below are some of the symptoms and habits that help doctors determine whether a patient is dependent on alcohol or not:

* A strong urge to consume alcohol
* Physical withdrawal system, e.g. shaking, agitation, nausea and sweating when patient tries to reduce drinking
* A growing tolerance to alcohol
* Neglecting other activities
* Persistent drinking

Short-term and Long-term effects

Effects of alcohol change over the time. At the beginning alcohol makes people feel relaxed and cheerful, but further consumption leads to blurred vision, slurred speech, loss of balance and coordination problems. Large amounts of drink at one time may lead to unconsciousness, or even death.

Drinking alcohol for a prolonged period of time will cause physical damage and increase the chances of getting diseases such as alcohol-related liver disease, cardiovascular disease, brain damage, neurological problems, vitamin deficiency and some forms of cancer. Obesity, sexual problems, infertility and skin problems also directly linked with excessive drinking.

Social effects

Alcohol can have negative effects on daily social life. In most of the cases people shy away from the heavy drinker and do not socialize with the addicted person.

Alcohol can also make a person say things they do not mean to say at all. Alcohol intoxication can lead to rapes, unintended pregnancies, ruined relationships and other unwelcome incidents that do not happen in a normal life.

Conclusion

Drinking alcohol does not necessarily have to be associated with ?producing negative impacts?. In fact, moderate drinking with plenty of water and appetizers can be quite enjoyable.

Excessive drinking does not only bring about social embarrassments and arouse intensity to commit criminal acts, but it also has as adverse effect on the human body. Once addicted, it?s not easy to quit alcohol, but it is possible to do so with medical help and social support.

If you are an alcohol abuse or you have a problem with alcohol consult with physician right away.

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The responsible service of alcohol is an initiative by Australian State and local Governments to reduce the social and health problems associated with alcohol. RSA online training is available from South Bank Institute of Technology as well as RSA face-to-face RSA courses.

Advertising and the promotion of alcohol in the media and through sport sponsorships is a major contributing factor to the ongoing alcohol problem in Australian society. Teenagers are especially at risk from campaigns that mix sexual attraction with alcohol.

Advertising that appeals to teenagers, links alcohol with sexual and sporting success, and encourages questionable standards of taste and morality has been heaviliy criticised by social commentators and health professionals.

They argue that such advertising seriously violates a corporate duty of care towards the Australian community.

In recent years, alcohol consumption has been promoted on Australian television through commercials with overtly sexual themes. In one such ad, a talking polar bear and a group of men eavesdrop on a young woman sitting at a bar. She credits alcohol with success in finding casual sex,and the men make no secret of the fact that this is what they like to hear.

Another commercial shows a young woman lifting her T-shirt and flaunting her breasts to a young man she has just beaten in a game.

A recent beer poster depicted a drawing of a young and attractive woman holding a bottle of beer in one hand and lifting her dress with the other.

These types of beer promotions, clearly designed to attract young drinkers, evoke subtle, but unrealistic sexual expectations associated with drinking alcohol and contribute to unhealthy relationships.

In an approach to sell alcohol to young people, hundreds of thousands of leaflets were used to promote web sites that encouraged school leavers to join a party with a particular alcoholic beverage.

Another web site posted by a large Australian beer manufacturer promoted free beer to fuel university student parties and offered the chance to become a “Citizen of the Keg.”

Sport is an important part of many people’s lives and sports venues have been targeted by alcohol manufactures for promotion of their products, thereby building an association between sport, sporting heros and alcohol to boost sales.

However, the link between alcohol consumption and antisocial behaviour at these venues has become so obvious that in 2003 the New South Wales Police Association took the unprecedented step of asking for alcohol to be banned at major sporting venues.

The police association cited examples of very attractive young women, with the names of alcoholic products printed across their bikini bottoms, selling alcohol at sports venues.

A similar social problem exists with the new ranges of alcoholic beverages that look like soft drinks and appeal to younger and, in particular, female drinkers. These drinks are often referred to as “Alcopops”

Some bottles of these premixed drinks, which are often brightly coloured and usually contain vodka or bourbon, have the words Cola or Lemonade in far larger print than other words on the label.

The promotion of these products in this way is another example of corporate violations of duty of care, and should be stopped.

Clearly, the present situation of alcohol trading is unacceptable in terms of the health and social costs the community is required to bear.

Measures to limit the availability of alcohol—such as through licensing drinkers, banning advertisements, banning discounted drinks and free entertainment, banning drink-driving and so on—will go a long way toward reducing the cost of alcohol to society.

While these control measures are essential, they will not, by themselves, reduce the social and health costs of alcohol to an acceptable level.
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The responsible service of alcohol is an initiative by various Australian State Governments to reduce social problems associated with alcohol.RSA online training is available via South Bank Institute of Technology as well as face-to-face RSA courses.

The marital union of, usually, a man and a woman is a life cycle event celebrated in all cultures and is the focus of considerable folklore. This begins with beliefs and customs that may be observed in the lead-up to the wedding day.

For example, in many Christian or European societies it is widely believed to be unlucky for the bride and groom to see each other for twenty-four hours ? sometimes more, sometimes less ? before the wedding.

The wedding car may be decorated with streamers and also, of late, with a Barbie Doll, dressed in the same material as the bridesmaids’ dresses, attached to the bonnet. Other mascots and forms of decoration are also common, including the traditional white ribbons.

Beliefs and customs relevant to the wedding day itself vary widely. In Lithuanian tradition, for instance, it is a popular custom to prevent the bride and groom from entering the reception. The groom must convince the guardians at the door and the guests that he and his bride should be allowed in.

Gifts are offered as an inducement. Barring the way to the fully wed state, with all its attendant rights and obligations, is a widespread facet of wedding customs, a rite of passage that marks the transition of the newlyweds from unmarried to married. Barring customs are also reported in British, American, Japanese and Carpathian tradition.

There are many interesting and colourful wedding customs observed in different ethnic and religious groups in Australia, such as stamping on a drinking glass (Jewish), linking ribbon coronets worn by bride and groom (Greek), the groom arriving at the wedding on horseback (Indian), and sugared almonds being given to wedding guests (Greek, Italian and many other ethnic groups).

The custom of giving sugared almonds has also been reported in France, Wales, England, Scotland, Israel and Belgium. In other places, raw nuts are considered appropriate food and/or gifts at weddings, a continuation of the widespread association of nuts and fertility, though in Italian tradition the nuts are generally said to symbolise good luck.

Almost always, an Australian wedding ceremony is followed by a reception, supper or party for the newlyweds and their friends and families. Often held at a reception centre or other public facility hired for the purpose, wedding receptions may also take place in the home of the bride or groom.

Characteristic elements include music, dance, song, food and drink, and speeches and toasts by the father of the bride, best man and groom. It is the duty of the best man to read out telegrams, letters, cards and faxes from absent well-wishers on this occasion.

In the past, these messages may have been of a playfully suggestive nature, though this feature seems to have faded from the contemporary observance of the custom. The gifts to the newlyweds are usually displayed at the reception.

It is important to note the dramatic changes in marriage practices in Australia even in the last twenty years, and their consequent effect on wedding customs. These changes have been documented by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, and the 2001 Census shows changes such as the rise in non-church weddings.

Civil celebrants performed 53% of marriages in 2001, and of all marriages, 32% of all marriages, church and celebrant, are estimated to end in divorce.

In the same census, 72% of couples stated that they had cohabited before marriage, although this does not stop many of these couples eventually celebrating a legal marriage, sometimes with their children present, in simple or elaborate ceremonies which may be devised by the bride and groom themselves.

Another marked change in Australian society is the high rate of intermarriage between couples of different ethnic origins. All of these changes suggest that social commentators, need to be cautious about making pronouncements about marriage, or weddings, in Australia.
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As so often in Australia’s history, Melbourne was founded through deception when explorer John Batman, an Australian fluent in several aboriginal dialects, made a “deal” with aborigines to lease land on behalf of investors.

While offering the Aborigines any compensation at all was progressive in a colonial culture that preferred to simply run them off the land, the fact that the native people had little understanding of rents, leases or indeed, the concept that land was something to be bought, sold and leased at all, made his arrangements no less exploitive. In return for a long term lease of 240,000 hectares of the finest grazing land in Australia, Batman gave the aborigines axes, salt, flour, blankets and jewelry. The total value of the goods was said to have been around £200.

Colonial administrators later declared his leases illegal, claiming that the government, not the Aborigines, were the true owners of the land. After paying Batman compensation, they took over the lands and founded a settlement as the seat of regional government. The settlement became the city of Melbourne in 1837, named after Viscount Melbourne, the British prime minister at the time.

A sensible grid plan
Melbourne’s location was its strongest advantage. While the “acquired” farmland was of excellent quality, the city’s location on the banks of the Yarra River and well protected Port Phillip Bay contributed to its rapid commercial development. The influx of energetic immigrants and eager investors from England were determinants in the economic growth of the young city.

Once the city had 5,000 residents, city planners intervened and imposed a strict grid plan to check chaotic growth in every direction. Melbourne’s planners decreed that every main street would be exactly 30 metres wide, with perpendicular side streets one third that width. The strict grid plan has been in place ever since.

Melbourne became the capital of the new Victoria Colony in 1851. As luck would have it, miners in the outback came upon a rich seam of gold just four days later. Melbourne prospered like no other city on the continent, even after the gold rush waned.

A second boom was sparked by industrial development and immigration after World War II. Melbourne’s population more than tripled, and the plains around the Yarra River gradually grew crowded as 3 million people from 140 nations arrived to claim their piece of the Australian dream.

City planners again stepped in, authorising the construction and development of suburbs and satellite towns. In the downtown commercial districts, Melbourne began building upward and large office buildings appeared on the horizon.

A rather unassuming city, Melbourne’s grand sights are few in comparison to trendy Sydney. Of course, there is still a great deal to see, including the Melbourne Museum, the State Parliament, the royal exhibition buildings, the Stock Market, majestic St. Patrick’s Cathedral and Flinders Street Station. Freshwater Place is a luxury residential complex, with a striking, elegant design that makes it Australia’s thinnest building as well as one of its tallest.

Melbourne is well known for book shops, live shows and the arts. Many northerners desperate for culture travel south to Melbourne for their arts fix. Melbourne hosts a world class writers festival and comedy festival.

Melbourne is also renowned for sports. The annual Melbourne Formula 1 Grand Prix held at the Albert Park Circuit is famous around the world, but there are many more sporting highlights to experience.

The professional tennis season starts here with the Australian Open, drawing the best players in the world to compete in the first of four major tournaments. Local sports attract an even greater following.

When the Magpies, Bombers and Kangaroos take the field, life is frozen in time. Melbourne’s football players have always been their sports heroes, but cricket and rugby are also popular. The Grand Final of the Australian Football League (AFL) takes place each year at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. One of the eight Melbourne teams usually participates.
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After climbing 508 metres up the Taipei 101 tower, the highest structure in the world, it can be seen easily from anywhere in the city, one can look down on the genuine Taipei amidst all the modern buildings: temples, markets, the National Palace Museum and in between them, the many old streets and lanes where everyday life in Taipei actually happens.

Initial steps
There was a swamp here about 300 years ago, right where one of Asia’s most modern cities now stands. Only the Pingpu, the original inhabitants of Formosa, who lived in the higher lying regions around the Taipei Basin, were able to reach this area by canoe.

Han Chinese from China came later to fish and trade goods, but they stayed on the banks of the Tarsui River and did not venture into the area of modern Taipei. In 1709, a Chinese farmer named Chen Lai Chang from Chuanchou laid the foundations of a farm house in Takala, which is now central Taipei. From then onwards, the number of migrants continually increased. The original settlement was known as Manka.

From Manka to Tataocheng
The administration of Manka and the surrounding area was mainly handled by immigrants from various parts of mainland China. Because of differing views regarding the future of the administrative structure, tensions between the residents soon escalated. The violent confrontations that resulted came to an end in 1823.

One of the groups that was defeated fled from Manka, on the bank of the Tamsui River, to Tataocheng. There they began to make the land arable land laid the foundations for a flourishing community. Tataocheng surpassed Manka in the nineteenth century, and became the centre of Taipei Prefecture in 1875.

Fast development
When the Japanese colonised Taipei in 1895, they built their main district in Taipei, and the city continued to develop steadily thereafter, even after the departure of the occupiers in 1945 and after the break with mainland China. Within a hundred years, the once rural district had developed into the administrative, economic and cultural centre of Taiwan.

Manka, Tataocheng and Chengnei have all lost their original appearance, but a number of historically important places have been preserved, including the Lin Family Villa and Garden, once the home of a very powerful clan in the nineteenth century, as well as the Peace Park and the 1919 Presidential Palace.

Modern city with old traditions

Today, all glass office high rises, luxury condominiums and modern shopping districts are situated along wide, tree lined boulevards. Elegant restaurants, stylish nightclubs and appearances by international stars are all part of people’s lives. Yet the traditional culture and way of life carries on below the contemporary surface.

Everywhere you go, you stumble on timeless scenes: believers praying to their gods in ancient temples, long religious processions winding their way through the streets to the accompaniment of firecrackers, and little shops offering herbal medicines that have been relied upon for millennia. Clearly, this is one of the oldest cultures in the world.

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The Lithuanian city of Vilnius exudes southern charm under the northern sun. Nestled in the natural amphitheatre of the surrounding Lithuanian hills, Vilnilus has much to offer visitors besotted with historical buildings.

Vilnius, which can look back on a thousand years of Lithuanian history, can boast one of the largest historical town centres in Eastern Europe. Among its almost 1,500 buildings are representatives of nearly every European architectural style and historical period. Vilnius has wonderful examples of architecture from the Gothic, Renaissance, baroque, neoclassical and Jugendstil periods, all of which are located within easy sauntering distance of the city centre. The uniqueness of the Old City of Vilnius led to its inclusion on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1994.

Heathens and Christians.
After most of Europe had adopted Christianity and prayed to a single God, the people of Vilnius continued to pray to their pantheon of heathen deities. For centuries, it mattered little. Founded in the eleventh century as a walled fortress at the convergence of the Vilnia and Neris Rivers, the city has always been well protected from invaders.

Nevertheless, it wasn’t until Vilnius became the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Prince Gediminas in 1323 that other nations took an interest in its economic potential. The German confederation, Poland and the Russian czar all cast their greedy eyes on Vilnius, each wanting a portion of its wealth and prosperity. Merchants, businessmen and priests arrived in their hundreds, and with them came Christian missionaries. Soon afterward, most Lithuanians finally became Christian.

The Jesuits in Vilnius.
As a result, unlike many of the other cities in the Baltic region, Vilnius became an eastern outpost of the Roman Catholic Church, and a multitude of glorious baroque churches and buildings greets visitors today. In the wake of the Reformation, a period of industrious building activity was begun under the patronage of the Jesuit order.

Jesuit activities were also at the heart of Vilnius’ intellectual revival, as the first Jesuit University was founded in 1579. Today, the University Quarter is recognized as a one of a kind architectural ensemble. Its buildings were inspired primarily by the styles of the early Italian baroque. Its courtyards, the church of St. John the Baptist, the clock tower, the observatory and the library are unparalleled anti City of churches. Vilnius lost its political significance following the union of Lithuania with Poland in 1569.

From this point onwards, rulers and occupying forces came and went. The city suffered greatly, again and again bowing to the will of more powerful nations. The construction of churches, however, continued unabated and Vilnius became known as “the Rome of the East”, a city noted for its abundance of churches and cloisters. Rapid growth continued to attract craftsmen, artists and labourers to the city, and by the beginning of the nineteenth century, Vilnius was the third most populous city in eastern Europe: only Moscow and St. Petersburg were larger.

Vilnius today.
After fifty years of occupation by the USSR, Lithuania obtained its independence in 1990, and Vilnius was made the capital of the modern, democratic state. Lithuanians are busy restoring their city today, in full recognition of the weight of history.

More than buildings need to be restored; the very identity of Vilnius needs to be restored as well. As the Lithuanian government proudly proclaims, “here we are not only repairing the facades, but also the foundations”. The president of Lithuania resides in a residence near the towers of the university, in the midst of the lively Old City. An office and business quarter has recently been established nearby, on the opposite bank of the Neris River. Vilnius, already a growing tourist destination, has set its sight on once again becoming the economic centre of the Baltic.
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Mumbai, formerly known as Bombay, is one of the most densely populated cities in the world. In 1533, when the Portuguese founded Bom Bahia, which means “good bay”, no one could have thought how Mumbai would work out.

In India there is no official system in place to register individuals and addresses. This makes any calculation of the population of Mumbai a highly uncertain task. This sprawling city is modern India’s centre for business and commerce, its financial capital and site of the the largest money market in the country. The Bombay Stock Exchange, founded in 1875 and based in Mumbai, is the oldest in Asia. Mumbai is also home to the largest film industry in the world. Even Hollywood cannot match the sheer number of films that are produced in Bollywood.

Mumbai is a city of contrasts where gleaming skyscrapers stand side by side with decrepit shacks, where air conditioned tourist buses cruise along next to ox carts. Business goes on day and night. European style shopping centres, recreation venues, bars, discos and pubs are everywhere. Whatever your taste, whatever you desire, you can probably find it in Mumbai. Multiplex cinemas are found on every street because Indians have a love affair with movies. As is the case with many large cities, Mumbai is also burdened with a long list of social problems. At the top of the list is uncontrolled population growth.

Land is scarce, and the cost of living is extremely high compared to the rest of the country. Approximately 6 million people live in slums today, making up nearly half of the city’s population. Many of the poor, unable to afford Mumbai’s comparatively costly housing costs, live far outside the city centre in impoverished commuter communities. Many spend several hours a day travelling to work via Mumbai’s extensive rail and bus system.

Mumbai is not an easy, relaxing city to visit and it is not exactly brimming with typical tourist attractions. Nevertheless, if you are ready and willing to travel to every corner of the city, there are certainly some beautiful places to visit. The home where Mahatma Gandhi lived from 1917 until 1934, for example, is open to the public. Known locally as Mani Bhavan, it includes a museum and research centre devoted to the life and work of its famous former occupant.

The Gateway of India is also worth a visit. This monumental gateway directly on the harbour is a symbol of both Old Bombay and modern Mumbai. It was built in 1911 to welcome King George V and his queen, Maria von Teck on the occasion of their visit to the city. Boat tours of the harbour leave from this location, offering the best vistas of the Mumbai skyline, with the Gateway of India in the foreground and the Taj Mahal Hotel in the background. It is also possible to take a cruise to Elephanta Island, where the Temple Cave of the Lord Shiva is located, one of the two UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the city.

The second UNESCO World Heritage Site in Mumbai is the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, formerly known as Victoria Terminal. Dedicated in 1888, it has long been one of the largest and busiest railway stations on Earth. Its imposing scale was deliberately designed as an assertion of British claims to power and the right to rule. Architect Frederick Stevens designed a functional building that is nothing short of monumental, combining the neoGothic style of the early Victorian era with elements derived from traditional Indian architecture. Richly ornamented, with every detail precisely rendered, this magnificent behemoth is under threat today from the damage done by smog and acid rain. From a purely practical point of view, the train station remains as important today as it once was to British colonial administrators. Over 1,000 trains pass through the station daily, carrying an average of 3 million passengers.

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Located in the centre of Europe, Vienna is both a lively modern metropolis and a city famous for its coffee houses, historic districts, beautiful parks, elegant squares and romantic courtyards.

Vienna means cafe culture, music and wine. Where else can one so happily spend all day sitting in a cafe, reading the newspaper, sipping a Viennese coffee or quaffing a glass or two of wine?

Roman Vindobona, founded in the year 15 CE, was completely destroyed by the Germanic migrations of the fourth and fifth centuries. With the Roman legions long gone, only a small settlement remained. The name Vindobona is likely a version of the Celtic “Vedunia”, which means “torrent”, a reference to the settlement’s position on the banks of the famous Danube River.

Vienna was a city of doubtful reputation at the end of the twelfth century. Its ruler, Duke Leopold V, was complicit in the kidnap of the English king, Richard Lionheart, on his way back from the Crusades. The two noblemen had butted heads during the Third Crusade.

Forced to stop in Vienna, Richard was recognised and arrested. An enormous ransom was paid for his freedom, roughly twenty five tons of silver, a huge sum for those days. The duke used the silver to start a mint, the vast profits from which enabled him to grow the city and build new fortification walls. Although Emperor Henry VI had given his blessing to the duke’s illicit activities, the pope had not, and in 1194 Leopold V was excommunicated.

The first version of Vienna’s cathedral was completed in 1147 as a small parish church, and was actually too large for the tiny population of Vienna at that time. The city would not become important for another ten years, after it was named capital of the Duchy of Austria. A hundred years later, the original church was replaced by one built in the Romanesque style. Its facade, known as the Roman Towers, was preserved when construction of a Gothic church began in 1340.

In 1359, Duke Rudolf IV placed the cornerstone for the soaring Gothic nave, which was completed in 1474. Vienna’s early dukes had not been successful in elevating the town to a bishop’s see, which was necessary for St. Stephen’s to be declared a cathedral; it had always been simply a church within the diocese of Passau. It did not become the seat of a bishop, and thus formally a cathedral, until 1469. St. Stephen’s has undergone many changes since then. As tastes changed, the interior and exterior were mofified to reflect the times. Recent restoration has uncovered traces of older versions of Vienna’s beloved “Steffl”, as the church is known locally.

The sixteenth century was very much focused on rebuilding Vienna’s fortifications, which had been damaged during the Turkish siege of 1529. Work was not quite finished when the Turks returned in 1684. They were stopped just outside Vienna, the gateway to Europe, and never got that far again. Bombardment from Turkish positions in what is today the Wienerwald (“Vienna Woods”) left the city badly damaged in the wake of the Turkish retreat.

Rebuilding Vienna brought a large number of baroque architects to the city. The most beautiful constructions from that time are noble and royal residences, including the Schonbrunn, Liechtenstein, Schwarzenberg and Belvedere Palaces.
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Almost everyone who comes to Copenhagen visits the little mermaid harbour. Hans Christian Andersen’s popular fairy tale is about a young mermaid willing to give up her life in the sea and her identity as a mermaid to gain a human soul and the love of a human prince.

Love is unpredictable. In the end, the unhappy mermaid looks on mutely as her prince gives her up in favour of a woman. In Andersen’s fairy tale, the little mermaid throws herself into the sea, dissolving in the foam. Today, the bronze mermaid cast by Eric Eriksen sits on a rock on the harbour at Langelinie Pier.

Vandals have attacked the statue on several occasions, but luckily, city officials keep the original bronze moulds in a secure location. Identical replacement limbs are always available. When Denmark became a kingdom in the tenth century, what would later become the great city of Copenhagen was a small, non-descript fishing town named Havn.

Located at the entrance to the Baltic Sea, its central location attracted the attention of the Danish crown. Recent archeological finds indicate that by the 11th century, Copenhagen had already grown into a small town with a large estate, a church, a market, at least two water wells and many smaller suburbs spread over a fairly wide area Havn was transformed virtually overnight into an important trading hub.

The building of Slotsholm Fortress in 1167 is usually said to mark the city’s founding. Three years later, Copenhagen was given its current name, which in Danish means “merchant’s harbour”. In 1443, the emergent city became the official capital of the Kalmar Union of Denmark, Norway and Sweden.

When the union disbanded in 1523 it became capital of the Kingdom of Denmark. Amalienborg, the famous winter palace of the Danish royal family, stands on a broad, paved, octagonal plaza. Four nearly identical palaces were built along the four diagonal sides of the octagon. At the centre of this beautiful rococo complex, one of the loveliest in Europe, is an equestrian monument honouring King Frederik V. A changing of the guard takes place outside the palaces each noon.

The best view of the Old City of Copenhagen may be from the wide platform on top of the Round Tower. Although the tower is only 36 metres high, the spiral staircase to the top winds around 209 metres. It was once possible to ride to the top on horseback, as Peter the Great did when he visited. Unfortunately, horses are now banned from the tower.

Trinity Church is adjacent to the tower, with the shopping districts of Stroget and Straedet nearby. Most of the Old City is off limits to vehicles, making it one of Europe’s biggest pedestrian zones. Christiansborg Palace is on the small island of Slotsholm, the site of the original fortress, which is today joined to the rest of the city by several bridges.

The palace was once home to the Danish royal family, and is now the seat of the Danish government and its parliament, the Folketing. This is the sixth building to stand here since the 1167 founding of the city. Invading armies, fires and modernization have all taken their toll. While the first castle on the site stood from 1417 into the late eighteenth century, rebuilding and renovation has been fast and furious ever since. The present Christiansborg was built in the early twentieth century.

Accessible from every quarter of the city, Tivoli Gardens amusement park first opened on 15 August 1843. Visitors can take a trip in a small boat on the moats once used for Copenhagen’s defense or take a pleasant ride on the big wheel looking down at the city from on high. It has a new, zero-G roller coaster (“the Demon”) and twenty-five other rides, as well as many restaurants and concert venues.

The mime presentations in the Pantomimes are extremely popular. After 150 years of continuous operation, neon signs are still banned in Tivoli. Instead, more than 110,000 incandescent lanterns brilliantly illuminate one of Europe’s oldest surviving pleasure gardens. The white bulbs hung from trees contribute to Tivoli’s uniquely old-fashioned atmosphere, even as the roller Demon screams by.

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Tehran is currently among the most densely populated capitals on the planet, yet for many centuries Tehran was nothing more than a small, insignificant city on the stage of world history.

Aga Muhammed Khan, founder of the Qajar dynasty, chose Tehran as the capital of the Persian Empire in 1795, largely because of its location on the cool Elbur hillsides. And so it has remained to this very day. Only after a terrible earthquake in May 2004 was there heated discussion of moving the seat of government from Tehran to a less earthquake prone region of the country.

Palaces and museums
The bulk of Tehran’s older buildings date back to the period of Qajar rule in the 19th century. Foremost among these structures is the Golestan, or Rose Garden Palace, the old seat of the shahs until 1979. Today it serves as a museum, and its most famous exhibit is the stunning Peacock Throne. Exactly 26,733 precious stones decorate this sumptuous throne of the former Persian rulers. While there are always crowds in the museum, the palace garden is a peaceful and beautiful oasis in the heart of Tehran.

The Iranian capital has a large number of museums worth seeing in addition to the Golestan Palace, including the Archaeological Museum and the National Museum. Many other cultural sites are inviting and worthy of a visit. Tehran’s bazaar is legendary and one of the biggest in the world.

The traditional Zurkhaneh (House of Strength) in the center of the bazaar is a special kind of sports venue: up to twenty five athletes at a time emulate their forebears, swinging maces and rings to the accompaniment of drums and tribal music. This distinct form of athleticism, called bastani in Persian, originated under the yoke of the Mongols, who prevented the locals to engage in any kind of physical training. The Persians trained in secret in order to be ready for the day when they would free themselves from Mongolian rule.

Modern Tehran
Impressive testaments to Persian rule in this city include not only historical monuments and the traditional souk, but also numerous modern structures. The symbol of modern Iran is a more recent building, the Shahyad (Freedom) Tower on Azadi Square, built in 1971 during the reign of the last shah.

From the observation deck one has an engaging view of the entire city, and can see all the way to the distant, white capped Elbur Mountains. Another important symbol of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Ayatollah Khomeini Mausoleum, is located in southern part of the city. Four narrow minarets, each 90 metres high, surround its shining gold cupola.

Those who would prefer to leave the noise of the city head out of Tehran travelling north, toward Darband and Darrake at the foot of Tochal Mountain in the Elbur Range. While travelling through the northern neighbourhoods of Tehran, a visit to the Saadabad Palace, the summer residence of the last shah, is definitely worth making.

Once you reach your final destination, there is a chance to enjoy the clear mountain air and to visit one of many traditional cafes and restaurants. For a taste of adventure, you can also take the longest cable car ride in the world up Mt. Tochal, and come down via one of the five ski slopes.

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Once in a while you see something interesting for Christmas. This is one such thing.

Senator Stephen Conroy
Minister for Broadband, Communications and the Digital Economy
Level 4, 4 Treasury Place
Melbourne Vic 3002

Tuesday, December 23, 2008

Dear Minister Conroy,

I have never written to a government minister before, but I have serious concerns about the Rudd Government’s mandatory Internet filtering plan. Given the importance your Government has attached to modernising Australia’s broadband network, pursuing a policy that can only slow down and increase the costs of home and business internet access seems misguided at best, and pandering to right-wing Christian minorities at worst.

Australian governments have never been very good at communications policy. Examples include: pay TV infrastructure, the privitisation of Telecom, digital television implementation, and the development of a national broadband network that doesn’t include the nation’s biggest carrier.

Now we have another ill-conceived and expensive communications policy debacle with the clean-feed mandate.

Australian households are diverse, and most do not have young children, so mandating a one-size-fits-all clean feed approach will not serve the public or business well. I don’t think it is the Government’s role to decide what’s appropriate for me or my children, and neither do most Australians.

Like China, Australia, will become a laughing stock and seen as a technically clumsy and naive cyber-nanny-state. Don’t be naïve Minister, seek counsel from people outside of Canberra who know what they are talking about. Ask yourself why no other western democratic country has a similar scheme.

Given the amount of Internet content available, the Government will never be able to classify it all and filters will always result in an unacceptable level of over-blocking. Did you know that for $3 per month it’s possible to use an overseas proxy server that completely bypasses all local ISP filtering? The introduction of a clean-fee will just educate people as to what’s available and encourage the use of such technology by many people, including terrorists and pedophiles. Ask the national security agencies what they think of such technology.

I feel that the time and money could be spent in better ways both to protect children and improve Australia’s digital infrastructure. Australian parents need better education about the risks their children face online. Trying to rid the Internet of adult content is futile, and can only distract from that mission. Stupid promises can be broken … break this one.

I can’t wait until the next election,

Name and address supplied

Today the demand for higher sophistication in professional sterilisation equipment is increasingly becoming important.

In day surgeries, which have witnessed a phenomenal growth in the recent years, are now often performing invasive procedures in their own premises. Not a surprise that a lot of research is being undertaken and more and more sophisticated brands of autoclave sterilizers are coming onto the market.

The Australian company, Sabac Australia, designs and manufactures a range of autoclaves including autoclave equipment and accessories. Most of the operation theatres use the tabletop sterilizers that perfectly fit into the modular space design of the clinics. The pre and post autoclave sterilizers use the most sophisticated tabletop technology available. This medical sterilization equipment is known for its reduced cycle time and is also reasonably priced.

The automatic autoclave sterilizer series include autoclave equipment that offers a high return on your investment. This medical sterilization equipment is known for rapid cycles, safety, durability, and low maintenance. The semi automatic autoclave sterilizer is sought by private clinics which stress safety, reliability, and quality. The products in this category offer lower running costs, and are maintenance free. The features include double locking safety device, door failure protection, heat insulation and automatic shut off in case of emergency.

Big hospitals and health centers that have a large number of beds and have adequate space, opt for large hospital autoclaves. The chamber volumes of these autoclave sterilizers range from 120 liters to more than 1000 liters. These mid-range and large range autoclave sterilizers put safety before anything else. The safety features include double door safety, safety valves, built-in steam generator safety and emergency shut-down.

Medical waste management is another issue which need frequent innovation in medical sterilization equipment. Most of the hospitals and health care facilities need to adhere to strict guidelines for managing the medical waste generated. The bio-hazard sterilizer is an autoclave sterilizer that uses the high vacuum steam environment technology, where steam acts as the sterilization agent.

It is designed to dispose medical waste in a safe, cost effective and environment friendly manner. Here the sterilization cycle is short, being less than 50 minutes. Most of these autoclaves conform to the ASME standards and other government mandates that are required by law. Recently the autoclave Australia products that are coming into the market are becoming an instant hit. The chlorine dioxide gas chamber is the most common method applied for pre-cleaning of autoclave equipment.
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Many small businesses spend far too much time on debt collection rather than their core business. Over the last 2-3 months I’ve noticed an increasing lag in payment cycles.

If you are in any sort of operation that uses small businesses as service providers or product suppliers it’s well worth your while to pay your bills on time and completely ignore to some “clever” accountants mantra of not paying until the second reminder. Guess what? People are human and they will pay back and pay forward. One way or the other you will pay in the end for screwing around your suppliers.

Here’s why:

1. If you pay on time you will get much better service. I know with my clients, the one’s who pay on time or early get the best service, day or night 365 days per year. These are A-Class clients. They pay on time or early, don’t bitch about the price, and as a result get excellent service and great value for money. They respect me, and I respect them. We both win.

2. If you don’t pay on time you reputation is on the line. Small business owners love to gossip. They slag off any customers who pay late. And with the Internet so freely available, your reputation can become crap overnight with one blog post. This leads into …

3. If you don’t pay on time, you can end up paying a premium. The current cost of money is about 1.5% per month. If your payment reputation is shite, than expect to pay at least 10-15 % more than if it were good or unknown. In some cases bad payers can be locked out of they supply chain completely and have to spend enormous amounts of time to find a new supplier.

With existing suppliers, if you screw them around, they will either add 10% to their next quote, or refer you to a lower-class competitor – hoping to send them broke because you don’t pay when due.

4. If you pay on time your staff don’t get harassed by debt collectors from your supplier’s accounts departments. This is a big source of staff burn-out. If you pay on time your staff won’t have to make up excuses for late payment and may actually start to enjoy their jobs.

In summary, if you want good service, good products, happier staff and ongoing loyalty, pay on time or before time and ignore your accountant’s advice.

What do you think? Why do you like early payment or not?

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Article supplied by Brisbane web designer and SEO Training.

The turmoil in the international stock markets is having a dire impact on the retirement plans of many Retirees.

For example, during September 2008, it was estimated by SuperRatings, a company that tracks the performance of super funds, that Australian super funds lost as much as 6% of their value. During the past year they lost 12% of their value.

The reason for the massive losses is the current superannuation rules which effectively place the Australian superannuation system in a virtual stock market straitjacket.

Over the years, The Investors Club has argued strongly that Australians should have greater flexibility in using their superannuation to invest directly in property and also to help pay off their mortgages.

This stock market straitjacket has been highlighted by a recent report from the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (APRA) that tracked the performance of superannuation funds in Australia during the period 1997 to 2006.

Super woes highlighted
The report showed that the ten-year average annual return for super funds with assets more than $100 million was around 6.7% before they imposed fees and charges.

During the same period, figures produced by the Real Estate Institute of Australia (REIA) show that the annual average gain (taking into account capital growth and weekly rents), for a three-bedroom residential home in the major capital cities varied from 11.2% to 16.8%.

The heavy investment in the stock market by super funds is underlined by the APRA report which showed that during 2006 nearly 60% of investments were in Australian or international shares.

The current superannuation rules virtually prohibit the use of superannuation for residential real estate and goes against the basic investment principle of not putting all of your eggs in one basket.

By allowing Australians to use their super contributions to pay off their mortgage, this would encourage additional super contributions. For example, someone has to earn $150 and pay $50 tax before paying $100 off their mortgage.

It would also allow more first home buyers to enter the housing market at a time when Australia is recognised as having among the most expensive real estate in the developed world and the worst housing shortage.

Interestingly, financial advisers and stockbrokers are the prime beneficiaries of this share market splurge and it is no coincidence that they are major contributors to both political party’s election funds.

It is now time that ordinary Australians were given a greater say in where their superannuation is invested and this should include the option of investing in residential real estate which is a proven long-term investment to create wealth.

================ Further information available from :

Kevin Young – The Investors Club Kevin Young – The Investors Club Kevin Young – The Investors Club Kevin Young – The Investors Club Kevin Young – The Investors Club

Ever noticed how many actors and celebrities have such white and shining teeth? Chances are they have used a laser and gel teeth whitening system to give them that “Hollywood Smile”. This article answers some of the most frequent questions about this modern, safe and effective cosmetic procedure.

Q: Is it for everyone?

A: Cold Laser and gel teeth whitening gives magical results to anyone who wants to whiten their teeth. This includes people with teeth that have been stained by smoking or by substances like coffee or tea. It also whitens teeth stained by tetracycline, specked by fluoride or hereditary discolouration. Pregnant woman or clients under 16 years of age should not receive the whitening treatment.

Q: How white could my teeth get?

A: Tests show that, after whitening with the laser and gel system, teeth can move 5 to 14 shades on the cold laser and gel teeth whitening shade guide. The results depend on how white the teeth were originally, but the end result will be white, shiny teeth.

Q: How long will the whitening last?

A: This varies from person to person and depends on your diet, but the effects should usually last for about 2 years. Periodic touch-up treatments can be taken for clients that frequently have coffee or other staining food or drinks or those that use tobacco products.

Q: Is it safe?

A: Yes. Scientific articles have shown that the active ingredients in cold laser and gel teeth whitening gel are effective and safe for cosmetic tooth whitening. The dental community has used these ingredients for tooth whitening for years. It does not change or damage the structure of the teeth: it merely makes them appear whiter and brighter.

Q: How long does the treatment take?

A: In a little over an hour, discolouration that has built up over years will magically disappear. It takes no longer than the time it would for you to have a haircut or facial – it’s that simple.

Q: What’s the difference between cold laser/gel and other methods of whitening?

A: Although cold laser and gel teeth whitening uses the same cold-light power whitening technology seen in professional dental offices, it has been specially adapted for the cosmetic beauty industry. Designed with the comfort and safety of the client in mind, our 60 minute treatment is safer, gentler, and produces superior results to other teeth whitening options.

Q: Will is whiten my existing crowns or veneers?

A: No, the whitening treatment in general cannot change the colour of porcelain crowns veneers or fillings.

Q: Will it hurt?

A: Most patients experience no pain or sensitivity after the treatment. A very small percentage of patients may feel some minor tooth sensitivity, especially if having very cold or hot foods within a few hours following the treatment. Avoid hot or cold drinks for the first 24 hours if there is any sensitivity.

Q: What is the difference between cold laser and gel teeth whitening and whitening treatments from a dentist?

A: The system used is the same technology used in dental offices for power whitening and the results are comparable. The cold laser and gel teeth whitening gel system is designed for safe treatment by aesthetic professionals.
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Image by Laser is a specialist cosmetic clinic that offers teeth whitening in Brisbane, safe laser acne treatment in Brisbane and safe laser Rosacea treatment in Brisbane.

Now that search engine optimisation is a mainstream marketing activity for a lot of online and offline businesses, demand for formal classroom training courses from sales and marketing professionals, web designers and small business owners is increasing. But how do you know if you are getting value? How do you choose the best local SEO training provider? Here’s seven things to consider when choosing an SEO or SEM training provider.

The book titled The Mental Game Plan, describes the three main types of worries experienced by anxious athletes in precompetition: worries about the task (“This is a very difficult course” or “These guys look huge”), about their own ability or readiness (“I do not have my best stuff today” or “I feel slow” or “My knee hurts”), and about consequences (“If I miss this shot, we won’t have a chance at conference” or “If I fall, my coach will be furious”).

The thoughts are often combined with images; for example, the thought “These guys look huge” may be accompanied by a mental picture of oneself as weak and small. The thoughts are multilayered, and addressing the underlying thought is important. For example, the thought “If I screw up the shot, we won’t have a chance at touring” may have the following unspoken fear attached: “.. and my teammates will blame me, and it will all be my fault.”

Later on we address how to intervene with these thoughts, but for now let’s examine the relationship between anxiety and performance. Since different theories have come up with different explanations for their relationship, we will review the main ones.

The Upside Down U
One of the first theories addressing the relationship between arousal and performance was the inverted-U hypothesis. The theory states that peak performance occurs at an intermediate level of arousal and that both very low and very high levels of arousal will result in impaired performance.

Sport psychology embraced the theory, and the terms “arousal,” “anxiety,” and “stress” became interchangeable in many of the theory’s descriptions. The explanations offered by the theory had a common sense appeal: A competitor (or a team) who is not aroused sufficiently is unlikely to exert great effort or persevere.

The typical example is that of the athlete or team who faces a less-skilled opposition. If the competition is labeled as easy and the resulting arousal is too low, this athlete or team risks losing the contest because the performance is expected to be subpar under these conditions.

At the other end of the continuum we have the competitor who faces a must-win situation that results in a very high level of arousal. Decision making is impaired, and the rhythm and mechanics of his movement are disturbed, partially because of excess muscle tension.

Arousal activates both flexor and extensor muscles so that it literally results in the athlete “putting the brakes on himself” while he is trying to go as fast as possible. Most people agree that the inverted-U theory is familiar to everyone in sport.

However, a theory should allow us to predict outcomes, and this one allows for explanations only after the fact: If someone does not perform well, we will assume that their level of arousal was not adequate. How do we know the level of arousal was not adequate?

Because the athlete did not perform well. This becomes a circular argument that explains itself. Another problem is that the theory does not explain how arousal affects performance. Arousal, understood as physiological activation, can be interpreted by one athlete as anxiety and by another as aggression.

The theory does not take into account the fact that different cognitive interpretations of arousal affect the performance. Finally, the symmetrical curve of the U used to describe the relationship would seem to predict a gradual deterioration of performance with increased arousal, but in most performers’ experience, that extra level of arousal tends to result in dramatic and rapid decreases in performance.

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Vanuatu consists of more than 80 islands, lying about 2000 kilometres north-east of Queensland. The largest island, Espiritu Santo, is 4010 square kilometres. Australia is a mainly a flat land, but most of Vanuatu’s islands are dominated by mountainous regions. The highest peak, Mt Tabwemasana (1880 metres), is on Espiritu Santo. The Earth beneath Vanuatu is unstable, and there is volcanic and earthquake activity.

Vanuatu has been inhabited for more than 3000 years. Separate communities developed, but trade between islands was common, and canoes were used to move people and produce.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to come to Vanuatu, in 1606. Next I came the French in 1768, then the British led by Captain James Cook in 1774. Cook named the islands the ‘New Hebrides’. During the 1840s, traders and missionaries made contact.

From 1887 to 1980 control over the New Hebrides was shared by France and Britain. During World War II, the New Hebrides were a key base for the United States of America in the battles to prevent Japan taking control of the South Pacific and Australia. Vanuatu gained independence on 30 July 1980.

About 200 000 people live in Vanuatu, the same number as in Hobart. Most people live on the islands of Efate, Espiritu Santo, Malakula and Tanna. Unlike Australia, 95 per cent of people in Vanuatu are native to the country. They are known as Ni-Vanuatu, and like Aboriginal Australians they have a special relationship with their land.

The remaining five per cent consist of French, Australian, New Zealand, Vietnamese and Chinese people, as well as other Pacific Islanders. Three main languages are spoken — English, French and Bislama (a form of pidgin English).

The literacy rate in Vanuatu is {poor|low}, and most students do not attend secondary school. But, in Port Vila, there is a technical college and a campus of the University of the South Pacific.

The economy is centred around the land, and major agricultural exports are beef and cocoa. Most people are involved in subsistence agriculture. There is also a large timber industry, and tourism is important to the economy, providing work in tourist areas, such as Vila.

Tonga
Tonga lies about 650 kilometres east of Fiji. It consists of 150 islands, and 40 of them are inhabited. The capital city is Nuku’alofa, which is on Tongatapu, the main island.

Polynesians first settled in Tonga about 3500 years ago. Captain James Cook made several visits during the 1770s and named the islands the Friendly Islands. Tonga gained full independence from Britain on 4 June 1970, but remains a member of the Commonwealth. Kings and queens have ruled Tonga for more than 1000 years. The reigning king is Taufa’ahau Tupou IV.

The population of Tonga is approximately 110 000, which is similar to the population of Cairns. Most people are of Polynesian descent, and they speak English and Polynesian. They are committed Christians with the main denomination being the Free Wesleyan Church.

The economy of Tonga revolves around agriculture and fishing, with pumpkins, coconuts and bananas being major crops. Education is important in Tonga, and school is compulsory for children between the ages of six and 14.

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If you fly directly east from northern Queensland for 2500 kilometres, you would be over Fiji. Looking down, you would see more than 800 islands — some large enough to hold thousands of people, others are very small. Perhaps 100 of these island are inhabited. If you flew down to 1323 metres while over the island of Viti Levu, you might hit the top of Tomanivi, Fiji’s highest peak. South-east of Tomanivi is Suva, the capital of Fiji. Main cities include Nadi, Sigatoka and Lautoka on Viti Levu and Labasa and Savusavu on Vanua Levu.

Fiji was populated for more than 3000 years before contact with Europeans. Most people living in Fiji had come from other islands in Melanesia, although some came from Polynesia and Micronesia. Villages developed their own traditions and dialect. Although the Dutch visited Fiji in the 1600s, regular visits from Europeans did not begin until traders and missionaries made contact with the natives in the early eighteenth century. This delay was partly due to the reputation of Fijians as ruthless cannibals.

In 1874, Fiji was declared a British colony. The British brought to Fiji many thousands of Indian workers to work on the sugar farms. Native Fijians resented so many non-Fijians settling in their land, and the British government introduced laws that banned non-Fijians from owning land. Fiji became an independent nation on 10 October 1970 with a system of government based on that of Britain.

About 800 000 people live in Fiji. The nearest Australian city in size is Adelaide, with a population of 1050 000 people. Three-quarters of the population live on the island of Viti Levu. Indigenous Fijians make up about 50 per cent of the population, with Indian Fijians accounting for 45 percent. The remaining five per cent are of European or Chinese or people from other Pacific Islands.

Most Fijians live in rural areas, but the number of people migrating to the cities has increased. Life for indigenous Fijians in rural areas revolves around their village. Each village has a chief, who is usually a man. The way of life in the villages is communal, with everybody helping everyone else. Indigenous Fijians speak Fijian and English.

Indian Fijians speak Fijian Hindi and English. Although most Indian Fijian families have lived in Fiji for many generations, their culture remains similar to families in India. Women wear saris, and most marriages are organised by parents when their children are young.

Fiji, like Australia, has a high literacy rate. About 90 per cent of Fijians can read and write (in Australia, it is 98 per cent). However, unlike Australia, education is not compulsory in Fiji, but it is encouraged. The government pays for children to attend, school until year nine, then fees must be paid by students’ families. Most schools are run by religious or community organisations. Fiji also has the University of the South Pacific and the Fiji School of Medicine.

Most Fijians work on farms, and the main crops are sugar and coconuts. Fishing is a large part of Fiji’s agricultural sector. Gold mines also provide work and much-needed income for the country. Fiji’s most important industry is tourism, and many of Fiji’s tourists are Australian. In 1987 and 2000, military coups discouraged foreigners from visiting Fiji, which resulted in an economic downturn.

Fiji’s major attractions are its natural attributes: the sea, the highlands and the islands. Most visitors to Fiji go to enjoy the beaches, with diving and snorkelling being popular pastimes. The Mamanuca group of islands, off the west coast of Viti Levu, have some of the country’s most beautiful beaches. The Abaca Cultural and Recreational Park, north-east of Nadi, contains waterfalls, rainforests and walking tracks that guide visitors through unimaginable beauty.

In 2000, George Spejght, an indigenous Fijian, led a coup against the Fijian Government. Speight and his followers kept Prime Minister Mahendra Chaudhry and other Politicians captive for more than three weeks before releasing them and forming their own government. Chaudhry is of Indian Fijian descent. Speight claimed he was representing indigenous Fijians who did not want Indian Fijians to have political rights. Speight was arrested, and power was given to a newly elected president.

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